Watermarks

Contents

Watermarks play an important role in dating works of art on paper. Before 1800, paper was handmade and often had a watermark, a unique pattern that can be traced back to a specific paper mill and production period. By systematically documenting and comparing watermarks, it is possible to determine whether certain works on paper originate from the same period and context. This offers valuable insights into 17th-century studio practices and dating issues.

Focus on Rembrandt and the 17th-century

A one-year pilot project, directed by the RKD, focuses on the systematic analysis of watermarks in 17th-century Netherlandish drawings, with a special focus on drawings by Rembrandt and his circle. The aim of the project is to use innovative digital tools and image processing techniques to improve the process of watermark identification and comparison and to make it more accessible.

The project applies a combination of image analysis, digital overlay techniques and pattern recognition to match watermarks. It uses the Watermark Imaging System (WImSy), a mobile device that can scan drawings and their structures, including watermarks, within minutes. This technology makes it possible to visualize and compare watermarks quickly and accurately.

Project

The project Innovative Research on Watermarks in Dutch Drawings: Focus on Rembrandt and the 17th Century (I-WaNT) has started in early 2025 and is led by Prof. Yvonne Bleyerveld, with data entry provided by interns. Dr Robert L. Fucci (University of Amsterdam) is involved in this project as a researcher and advisor. The collaboration with international experts, including Prof. Paul Messier (Yale University) and Prof. Rick Johnson (Cornell University), is essential for the scientific depth of the research.

The pilot project is made possible in part by a subsidy from E-RIHS and additional funding from the RKD. The research is being conducted in collaboration with Teylers Museum, Amsterdam Museum, Fondation Custodia, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Museum Het Rembrandthuis and Leiden University Libraries. In addition to analyzing and documenting watermarks in collections, the project will invest in education and training, a short course for students and professionals and a public lecture. After the project has been completed, the results will be made available on our website, RKDimages and Marks on Art.

Explanation

The systematic study of watermarks has a long tradition in art-historical and technical-material research. Rob Fucci, a specialist in early Netherlandish drawings and prints, has contributed to the development of historical paper analysis. His expertise is an important part of this project. The technological side of the project builds on the groundbreaking work of Rick Johnson, who, with his background in digital signal processing, has developed computational tools for the analysis of structures in works of art. The RKD previously worked with him on his automated thread counting project Counting Vermeer. His innovative methods for watermark overlays and pattern recognition are being used in this project to very precisely match watermarks from datasets in the so-called ‘watermark libraries’.

The project also makes use of the expertise of Paul Messier, who developed the Watermark Imaging System (WImSy) in collaboration with American museums. For this project, the RKD may use this unique prototype device for one year in the six mentioned collections, which offers the opportunity to test the method on a larger scale and use it for research into Netherlandish drawings.